AI versus Human Content Creation on Instagram: Engagement Outcomes and Consumer Perceptions
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15291/oec.4845Keywords:
social media marketing, Instagram engagement, artificial intelligence, content creation, consumer preferencesAbstract
The study examines the comparative performance of human- and AI-generated content on Instagram, evaluating both engagement metrics and consumer preferences. The aim is to identify whether AI can match or exceed human content creation in terms of reach, interaction, and perceived quality. A within-subjects field experiment was conducted on an existing Instagram account with 770 followers. Twenty-four single-image culinary posts (12 human-created, 12 AI-generated) were published in alternating order. Engagement data were collected via Instagram Insights and analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Two Instagram Story surveys were conducted to identify which post elements (image, caption, recipe) most influenced engagement. Results showed that AI generated content has the potential to generate similar outcomes in terms of likes, comments, shares, saves, reach, impressions, engagement rate, or engagement score. Human content generated more comments and hashtag impressions, while AI content achieved greater profile visits and higher reach among non-followers. Survey findings indicated that visuals were the most important driver of engagement (64%), followed by recipe/information (26%) and captions (10%). Consumers preferred human visuals and recipes, but AI captions were more appealing. These results suggest complementary strengths, with implications for hybrid content strategies. The study was limited to a single Instagram account in the culinary niche, using static image posts. Results may not be generalized to other industries, platforms, or content formats. Potential platform effects, such as shadow banning, and limitations of the AI tool in generating certain dishes may also have influenced outcomes. Future research should test across industries, platforms, and content formats to explore long-term impacts of AI in content creation.
References
Aji, P.M., Nadhila V., Sanny, L. (2020) Effect of Social Media Marketing on Instagram towards Purchase Intention: Evidence from Indonesia’s Ready-to-Drink Tea Industry. International Journal of Data and Network Science, 4(2), pp. 91–104. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.ijdns.2020.3.002.
Alves, H., Fernandes, C., Raposo, M. (2016) Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review and Implications. Psychology & Marketing, 33(12), pp. 1029–1038. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20936.
Al-Youzbaky, B.A., Hanna, R.D. (2022) The Effect of Information Overload, and Social Media Fatigue on Online Consumers Purchasing Decisions: The Mediating Role of Technostress and Information Anxiety. Journal of System and Management Sciences, 12(2), pp. 195–220. https://doi.org/10.33168/JSMS.2022.0209.
Asante, I.O., Jiang, Y., Luo, X., Ankrah Twumasi, M. (2023) The Organic Marketing Nexus: The Effect of Unpaid Marketing Practices on Consumer Engagement. Sustainability, 15(1), pp. 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010148.
Ballester, E., Ruiz, C., Rubio, N. (2021) Engaging consumers through firm-generated content on Instagram. Spanish Journal of Marketing – ESIC, 25(3), pp. 355–373. https://doi.org/10.1108/SJME-11-2020-0189.
Belle Wong, J.D. (2023). Top Social Media Statistics and Trends. Available at https://www.forbes.com/advisor/business/social-media-statistics/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Brafton (n.d.) What Is Content Creation? Available at: https://www.brafton.com/what-is-content-creation/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Brüns, J.D., Meißner, M. (2024) Do you create your content yourself? Using generative artificial intelligence for social media content creation diminishes perceived brand authenticity. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 79, pp. 103790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103790.
CBS News. (2022) Chocolate Chip Cookies Are America’s Favorite, Survey Finds. Available at: https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/chocolate-chip-cookies-are-americas-favorite-survey-finds/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Chen, H., Chan-Olmsted, S., Kim, J., Mayor Sanabria, I. (2022) Consumers’ perception on artificial intelligence applications in marketing communication. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 25(1), pp. 125–142. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-03-2021-0040.
Chen, Y., Li, M., Guo, F., Wang, X. (2022) The effect of short-form video addiction on users’ attention. Behaviour & Information Technology, 42(16), pp. 2893–2910. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2022.2151512.
Chintalapati, S., Pandey, S.K. (2021) Artificial intelligence in marketing: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Market Research, 64(1), pp. 38–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/14707853211018428.
Constantinides, E. (2014) Foundations of Social Media Marketing. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 148, pp. 40–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.016.
Cook, J. (2020) Instagram Rules: The Essential Guide to Building Brands, Business and Community, Frances Lincoln.
Coolican, H., Coolican, H. (2013) Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, 5th ed. Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203769669.
Cox, A. (2019) How to Crush Content Creation on Social Media. Available at: https://www.brafton.com/blog/social-media/how-to-crush-content-creation-on-social-media-in-2019/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Cuevas-Molano, E., Matosas-López, L., Bernal-Bravo, C. (2021) Factors Increasing Consumer Engagement of Branded Content in Instagram. IEEE Access, 9, pp. 143531–143548. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3121186.
Davenport, T., Guha, A., Grewal, D., Bressgott, T. (2020) How artificial intelligence will change the future of marketing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 48(10), pp. 24–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-019-00696-0.
Demeku, A. (2025) Top Instagram Hashtags to Use in 2025. Available at: https://later.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-using-instagram-hashtags/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Dixon, S.J. (2025a) Global Facebook User Age & Gender Distribution 2025. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/376128/facebook-global-user-age-distribution/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Dixon, S.J. (2025b) Instagram: Age Distribution of Global Audiences 2025. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/325587/instagram-global-age-group/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Gaber, H.R., Wright, L.T., Kooli, K. (2019) Consumer attitudes towards Instagram advertisements in Egypt: The role of the perceived advertising value and personalization. Cogent Business & Management, 6(1), pp. 1618431. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2019.1618431.
Gupta, Y., Khan, F.M. (2024) Role of artificial intelligence in customer engagement: a systematic review and future research directions. Journal of Modelling in Management, 19(5), pp. 1535–1565. https://doi.org/10.1108/JM2-01-2023-0016.
Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Qadri, M.A., Singh, R.P., Suman, R. (2022). Artificial intelligence (AI) applications for marketing: A literature-based study. International Journal of Intelligent Networks, 3, 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijin.2022.08.005.
Harris, J. (2022) Content Creation Process: The Essential Marketing Guide. Available at: https://contentmarketinginstitute.com/content-optimization/your-ultimate-guide-to-master-the-content-creation-process (accessed 2.10.25).
Ho, J., Pang, C., Choy, C. (2020) Content marketing capability building: a conceptual framework. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 14(1), pp. 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-06-2018-0082.
Ho, S.P.S., Chow, M.Y.C. (2024) The role of artificial intelligence in consumers’ brand preference for retail banks in Hong Kong. Journal of Financial Services Marketing, 29(2), pp. 292–305. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41264-022-00207-3.
Hodder, D. (2023) What Is the 3x3 Hashtag Strategy? Available at: https://www.davidhodder.com/what-is-the-3x3-hashtag-strategy/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Huang, M.-H., Rust, R.T. (2021) A strategic framework for artificial intelligence in marketing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 49(1), pp. 30–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-020-00749-9.
Jiang, H.H., Brown, L., Cheng, J., Khan, M., Gupta, A., Workman, D., Hanna, A., Flowers, J., Gebru, T. (2023) AI Art and its Impact on Artists, in: Proceedings of the 2023 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, AIES ’23. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, USA, pp. 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1145/3600211.3604681.
Khatri, M. (2021) How Digital Marketing along with Artificial Intelligence is Transforming Consumer Behaviour? International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology, 9(7), pp. 523-527. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.36287.
Kit (2022) State of the Creator Economy Report. Available at: https://kit.com/reports/creator-economy-2022 (accessed 2.10.25).
Kopalle, P.K., Gangwar, M., Kaplan, A., Ramachandran, D., Reinartz, W., Rindfleisch, A. (2022) Examining artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in marketing via a global lens: Current trends and future research opportunities. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 39(2), pp. 522–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2021.11.002.
Kumar, V., Rajan, B., Venkatesan, R., Lecinski, J. (2019) Understanding the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Personalized Engagement Marketing. California Management Review, 61(4), pp. 135–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619859317.
Kusumasondjaja, S. (2018). The roles of message appeals and orientation on social media brand communication effectiveness: An evidence from Indonesia. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 30(4), pp. 1135–1158. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-10-2017-0267.
Liang, S., Wolfe, J. (2022) Getting a Feel of Instagram Reels: The Effects of Posting Format on Online Engagement. Journal of Student Research, 11(4), pp. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.47611/jsrhs.v11i4.3600.
Mancini, J. (2023) Mark Zuckerberg Reveals Social Media Feeds Are Now Fueled By AI-Generated Content. Available at: https://finance.yahoo.com/news/mark-zuckerberg-reveals-social-media-174426075.html (accessed 2.10.25).
Marr, B. (2023) Is Generative AI Stealing From Artists? Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2023/08/08/is-generative-ai-stealing-from-artists/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Maynard, M. (2023) Will AI Lead To The End Of Marketing Jobs? Available at: https://www.forbes.com/councils/forbesagencycouncil/2023/06/23/will-ai-lead-to-the-end-of-marketing-jobs/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Miguel, C., Clare, C., Ashworth, C.J., Hoang, D. (2023) Self-branding and content creation strategies on Instagram: A case study of foodie influencers. Information, Communication & Society, 27(8), pp. 1530–1550. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2023.2246524.
Murár, P., Kubovics, M., Jurišová, V. (2024). The Impact of Brand-Voice Integration and Artificial Intelligence on Social Media Marketing. Communication Today, 15(1), pp. 50–63. https://doi.org/10.34135/communicationtoday.2024.Vol.15.No.1.4.
Nazir, S., Khadim, S., Ali Asadullah, M., Syed, N. (2023) Exploring the influence of artificial intelligence technology on consumer repurchase intention: The mediation and moderation approach. Technology in Society, 72, pp. 102190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102190.
O’Brien, C. (2024) How AI Is Changing Digital Marketing. In Digital Marketing Institute. Available at: https://digitalmarketinginstitute.com/blog/how-ai-is-changing-digital-marketing (accessed 2.10.25).
Pansari, A., Kumar, V. (2017) Customer engagement: the construct, antecedents, and consequences. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 45(3), pp. 294–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-016-0485-6.
Piller, F.T., Walcher, D. (2006) Toolkits for idea competitions: a novel method to integrate users in new product development. R&D Management, 36(3), pp. 307–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2006.00432.x.
Profiletree (2025) 100 Ways Social Media in the Food Industry With Interesting Statistics. Social Media Strategies. Available at: https://profiletree.com/ways-social-media-shaped-food-industry-statistics/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Rahman, W.N.A., Mutum, D.S., Ghazali, E.M. (2022) Consumer Engagement With Visual Content on Instagram: Impact of Different Features of Posts by Prominent Brands. International Journal of E-Services and Mobile Applications, 14(1), pp. 1–21. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJESMA.295960.
Rietveld, R., van Dolen, W., Mazloom, M., Worring, M. (2022) What You Feel, Is What You Like Influence of Message Appeals on Customer Engagement on Instagram. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 49(1), pp. 20–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2019.06.003.
Roose, K. (2022) AI-Generated Art Won a Prize. Artists Aren’t Happy. The New York Times. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/02/technology/ai-artificial-intelligence-artists.html (accessed 2.10.25).
Saputra, R., Nasution, M.I.P., Dharma, B. (2023) The Impact of Using AI Chat GPT on Marketing Effectiveness: A Case Study on Instagram Marketing. Indonesian Journal of Economics and Management, 3(3), pp. 603–617. https://doi.org/10.35313/ijem.v3i3.4936.
Sharma, A. (2025) 17 Must-Try AI Social Media Content Creation Tools in 2025. Available at: https://buffer.com/resources/ai-social-media-content-creation/ (accessed 2.10.25).
Sheng, N., Yang, C., Han, L., Jou, M. (2023) Too much overload and concerns: Antecedents of social media fatigue and the mediating role of emotional exhaustion. Computers in Human Behavior, 139, pp. 107500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107500.
Singh, N., Jaiswal, A., Singh, T. (2023) Best time to post and review on Facebook and Instagram: analytical evidence. South Asian Journal of Marketing, 4(2), pp. 128–141. https://doi.org/10.1108/SAJM-09-2022-0059.
Stephen, A.T. (2016) The role of digital and social media marketing in consumer behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 10, pp. 17–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.016.
Sterne, J. (2017) Artificial Intelligence for Marketing: Practical Applications. 1-st Edition, Wiley, New Jersey.
Sung, E. (Christine), Bae, S., Han, D.-I.D., Kwon, O. (2021) Consumer engagement via interactive artificial intelligence and mixed reality. International Journal of Information Management, 60, pp. 102382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102382.
Vincent, J. (2023) AI Art Tools Stable Diffusion and Midjourney Targeted with Copyright Lawsuit. Available at: https://www.theverge.com/2023/1/16/23557098/generative-ai-art-copyright-legal-lawsuit-stable-diffusion-midjourney-deviantart (accessed 2.10.25).
Vinerean, S., Opreana, A. (2019) Social Media Marketing Efforts of Luxury Brands on Instagram. Expert Journal of Marketing, 7(2), pp. 144-152. https://marketing.expertjournals.com/23446773-714/.
Walsh, S. (2025) The Top 10 Social Media Sites & Platforms. Available at: https://www.searchenginejournal.com/social-media/social-media-platforms/ (accessed 2.10.25).
